Writings

The major piece of literature in Taoism is Lao Tzu’s Tao Te Ching, though it hasn’t been established that Lao Tzu was the sole author. There are no references in the work to other persons, events, places,or even writings that could provide any evidence to assist in placing or dating the composition. The fact that the author or location of the work can’t be authenticated is somehow in keeping with the philosophy of Taoism; the work exists and that is everything.

The essence of the book is pure simplicity: One should accept what is without wanting to change it. Study the natural order and go with it, rather than against it. The effort to change something creates resistance. Everything nature provides is free; a person should emulate nature and consider everyone as an equal.

If people stand and observe, they will see that work proceeds best if they stop trying too hard. The more extra effort you exert and the harder you look for results, the less gets done. The philosophy of Taoism is one of being more than doing.

The Tao Te Ching was compiled in an environment rife with widespread disorder, wanton self-seeking rulers, and rampant immoral behavior. The popularity of the work has been, and remains, widespread. An amazing number of translations have been produced, more than for any other literary work except the Bible. There have been eighty English translations alone.

One example of the use of harmony and meditation is the practice of Feng Shui. The literal meaning is “wind and water,” which are the natural elements that shape the landscape. A Feng Shui expert can advise how to get the best results in a home or office by establishing the most advantageous alignment of space and furnishings to allow the most positive and harmonious flow of chi.

 

Chuang Tzu

Chuang Tzu was a great Taoist sage who lived around 327 B.C.E. He is best known for the book that bears his name, the Chuang Tzu, also known as Nan-hua Chenching (The Pure Classic of Nan-hua). It is thought to have once comprised thirty-three chapters, although there may have been more. As with many works from antiquity, controversy abounds over what the author wrote and what others contributed. However, scholars agree that the first seven chapters of the Chuang-tzu were written by the author alone.

He wrote other books highly critical of Confucianism. On the other hand, he was seen as being a great influence on the development of Chinese Buddhism. Buddhist scholars considered Chuang Tzu to be the primary source for Taoist thought and they drew heavily from his teachings. Overall, he was considered the most significant and comprehensive of the Taoist writers.

Apparently, when he was near death, there was talk of an elaborate funeral. Chuang Tzu dismissed the idea and said that all creation would make offerings and escort him on his way. His disciples replied that they were afraid that the crows and buzzards might eat him if he wasn’t properly prepared. Chuang Tzu replied, “Above the ground it’s the crows and the kites who will eat me, below the ground it’s the worms and the ants. What prejudice is this, that you wish to take from the one to give to the other?”

The following example of the value of living naturally comes from Chuang Tzu. He said that a drunk could fall from a moving carriage without hurting himself, whereas a sober person would be injured by the same fall. The reason is that the drunk is “united” and his body reacts naturally. The sober person, perceiving danger, tenses himself and is thus vulnerable.

)O(

Lao Tzu

Lao Tzu’s birth date is unknown, with scholars placing it between 600 and 400 B.C.E.; it is most likely close to the sixth century. In his biography, Records of the Historian, it is said that he was acontemporary of Confucius (there is some evidence that he may have met and instructed Confucius on one occasion) and once served as curator of the dynastic archives until retiring to the mythical K’un-lun Mountains. Thereupon he transmitted his teachings to a border guard who compiled the Tao Te Ching. The name “Lao Tzu” signifies “old person” or “old philosopher.”

The Tao Te Ching, purported to contain Lao Tzu’s great teachings, is a compilation. Most scholars agree that the sayings were gathered over many years, with some ascribed to Lao Tzu and others to his disciples. The work is a collection of pithy aphorisms or sayings that express the ideas that make up his teachings.

The Tao Te Ching has been referred to as a “wisdom book.” Here is a sampling:

There is nothing better than to know that you don’t know.
Not knowing, yet thinking you know —
This is sickness.
Only when you are sick of being sick
Can you be cured.
The sage’s not being sick
Is because she is sick of sickness.
Therefore she is not sick.

)O(

Chinese Taoism

Taoism refers to a variety of related Chinese philosophical and religious traditions and concepts. These traditions have influenced East Asia for over two thousand years and some have spread internationally.The Chinese character Tao means “path” or “way”, although in Chinese religion and philosophy it has taken on more abstract meanings. Taoist propriety and ethics emphasize the Three Jewels of the Tao: compassion, moderation, and humility. Taoist thought focuses on wu wei (“non-action”), spontaneity, humanism, and emptiness. An emphasis is placed on the link between people and nature, and that this link lessens the need for rules and order, leading one to a better understanding of the world. Most traditional Chinese Taoists are polytheistic. Nature and ancestor spirits are also common in popular Taoism. Organized Taoism distinguishes its ritual activity from that of the folk religion, which some professional Taoists (Daoshi) view as debased. This sort of shamanism is eschewed for an emphasis on internal alchemy among the “elite” Taoists. Chinese alchemy, astrology, cuisine, several Chinese martial arts, Chinese traditional medicine, fengshui, and many styles of qigong breath training disciplines are intertwined with Taoism throughout history.

There is debate over how, and whether, Taoism should be subdivided. Some scholars have divided it into the following three categories:

  • “Philosophical Taoism”. (Daojia). A philosophical school based on the texts Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi;
  • “Religious Taoism”. (Daojiao). A family of organized Chinese religious movements originating from the Celestial Masters movement during the late Han Dynasty and later including the “Orthodox” (Zhengyi) and “Complete Reality” (Quanzhen) sects, which trace back to Lao Zi or Zhang Daoling in the late Han Dynasty;
  • “Folk Taoism”. The Chinese folk religion.

This distinction is complicated by hermeneutic difficulty. The categorization of Taoist sects and movements is very controversial. Many scholars believe that there is no distinction between Daojia and Daojiao.

Beliefs in Chinese Taoism:
Taoism has never been a unified religion, but has rather consisted of numerous teachings based on various revelations. Therefore, different branches of Taoism often have very distinct beliefs. Nevertheless, there are certain core beliefs that nearly all the schools share.

Principles in Chinese Taoism:
Taoism theology emphasizes various themes found in the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi, such as naturalness, vitality, peace, “non-action” (wu wei), emptiness (refinement), detachment, the strength of softness (or flexibility), receptiveness, spontaneity, the relativism of human ways of life, ways of speaking and guiding behavior.

Tao in Chinese Taoism:
Tao can be roughly stated to be the flow of the universe, or the force behind the natural order. Tao is believed to be the influence that keeps the universe balanced and ordered. Tao is associated with nature, due to a belief that nature demonstrates the Tao. The flow of qi, as the essential energy of action and existence, is compared to the universal order of Tao. Tao is compared to what it is not, like the negative theology of Western scholars. It is often considered to be the source of both existence and non-existence. Tao is rarely an object of worship, being treated more like the Indian concepts of atman and dharma. The word “Taoism” is used to translate different Chinese terms.

De in Chinese Taoism:
Tao is also associated with the complex concept of De “power; virtue”, which is the active expression of Tao. De is the active living, or cultivation, of that “way”.

Wu wei in Chinese Taoism:
Wu wei is a central concept in Taoism. The literal meaning of wu wei is “without action”. It is often expressed by the paradox wei wu wei, meaning “action without action” or “effortless doing”. The practice and efficacy of wu wei are fundamental in Taoist thought, most prominently emphasized in Taoism. The goal of wu wei is alignment with Tao, revealing the soft and invisible power within all things. It is believed by Taoists that masters of wu wei can control this invisible potential, the innate yin-action of the Way. In ancient Taoist texts, wu wei is associated with water through its yielding nature. Water is soft and weak, but it can move earth and carve stone. Taoist philosophy proposes that the universe works harmoniously according to its own ways. When someone exerts his will against the world, he disrupts that harmony. Taoism does not identify man’s will as the root problem. Rather, it asserts that man must place his will in harmony with the natural universe.

P’u in Chinese Taoism:
P’u is translated as “uncarved block” or “simplicity”. It is a metaphor for the state of wu wei and the principle of jian. It represents a passive state of receptiveness. P’u is a symbol for a state of pure potential and perception without prejudice. In this state, Taoists believe everything is seen as it is, without preconceptions or illusion. P’u is seen as keeping oneself in the primordial state of tao. It is believed to be the true nature of the mind, unburdened by knowledge or experiences. In the state of p’u, there is no right or wrong, beautiful or ugly. There is only pure experience, or awareness, free from learned labels and definitions. It is this state of being that is the goal of following wu wei.

Spirituality in Chinese Taoism:
Taoists believe that man is a microcosm for the universe. The body ties directly into the Chinese five elements. The five organs correlate with the five elements, the five directions and the seasons. Akin to the “neoplatonic maxim” of “as above, so below”, Taoism posits that by understanding himself, man may gain knowledge of the universe, and vice versa. In Taoism, even beyond Chinese folk religion, various rituals, exercises, and substances are said to positively affect one’s physical and mental health. They are also intended to align oneself spiritually with cosmic forces, or enable ecstatic spiritual journeys. These concepts seem basic to Taoism in its elite forms. Internal alchemy and various spiritual practices are used by some Taoists to extend life, even to the point of immortality.

Ethics in Chinese Taoism:
The Three Jewels, or Three Treasures, are basic virtues in Taoism. The Three Jewels are compassion, moderation and humility. They are also translated as kindness, simplicity and modesty. Arthur Waley describes them as “the three rules that formed the practical, political side of the author’s teaching”. He correlated the Three Treasures with “abstention from aggressive war and capital punishment”, “absolute simplicity of living”, and “refusal to assert active authority”. The first of the Three Jewels is ci, which the Tao Te Ching parallels with familial and brotherly love. It is compared to loving others and the world as a person loves their own existence. The second is jian, which the Tao Te Ching praises. Jian is connected with the Taoist metaphor pu. It represents perfect efficiency and simplicity of desire. The third treasure is the phrase bugan wei tianxia xian, meaning “not dare to be first in the world”. It is connected to a fear of death, out of a love for life. Taoism posits that to be first is to expose oneself to the world’s destructive forces. Remaining behind and embracing humility allows time for one to bear fruit.

Pantheon in Chinese Taoism:
The traditional Chinese religion is polytheistic. Its many deities are part of a heavenly hierarchy that mirrors the bureaucracy of Imperial China. According to their beliefs, Chinese deities may be promoted or demoted for their actions. Some deities are also simply exalted humans, such as Guan Yu, the god of honour and piety. The particular deities worshiped vary according to geographical regions and historical periods in China, though the general pattern of worship is more constant. There are disagreements regarding the proper composition of this pantheon. Popular Taoism typically presents the Jade Emperor as the official head deity. Intellectual (“elite”) Taoists, such as the Celestial Masters sect, usually present Laozi (Laojun, “Lord Lao”) and the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon of deities. While a number of immortals or other mysterious figures appear in the Zhuangzi, and to a lesser extent in the Tao Te Ching, these have generally not become the objects of worship. Traditional conceptions of Tao are not to be confused with the Western concepts of theism and monotheism. Being one with the Tao does not indicate a union with an eternal spirit in the Hindu sense, but rather living in accordance with nature.

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